Effectiveness and EU consumer law : the blurriness in judicial dialogue

Współautorstwo: Taborowski, Maciej

The Practice of Judicial Interaction in the Field of Fundamental Rights : The Added Value of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU Judicial Review and Cooperation series / Federica Casarosa, Madalina Moraru (eds.) – Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2022, s. 235-256.

The concept of effectiveness, one of the most foundational premises of EU law, has recently been reframed significantly, and reinvigorated in the CJEU case law on EU consumer law by two interconnected dynamics: the introduction of Article 47 EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and the current debate over axiological foundations of EU private law. Effectiveness was thus elevated to a more prominent position, being situated at the intersection of policy and fundamental rights. The text delves into the role of effectiveness in the protection offered by EU law to the consumer as a domain of dialogue between the CJEU and domestic courts and adopts in this respect two focal points. At the foundational level, the text seeks a more precise understanding of effectiveness in the CJEU consumer case-law. It tries to distinguish between different conceptual paradigms of this principle, which do not seem to be clearly delimited by the CJEU and domestic courts. Building on these premises, the text attempts to understand better the role of effectiveness as in proliferation of the EU-based fundamental right to effective remedy. In this regard it pays particular attention to the ways of proliferating the standard of effectiveness through the instruments of judicial dialogue. In this regard the text adopts a two-pronged perspective. On the one hand, it seeks to identify the ways of bringing the problem of effectiveness before CJEU by domestic courts in the preliminary procedure. On the other hand, it attempts to understand to what extent (and under what premises) the notion of effectiveness construed by CJEU can be reflexively translated upon domestic legal systems. In the latter regard the analysis centres around the question way how various dimensions of effectiveness can be operationalized by Member States' courts - especially, if it can be used as a source of judicial innovation in domestic law.

Mikrokasa-makroproblem : prawo krajowe a granice kontroli postanowień umów konsumenckich

Non omne quod licet honestum est : studia z prawa cywilnego i handlowego w 50-lecie pracy naukowej Profesora Wojciecha Jana Katnera / redakcja naukowa Szymon Byczko, Aleksander Kappes, Bartosz Kucharski, Urszula Promińska. Łódź : Warszawa : Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego ; Wolters Kluwer, 2022, s. 232-241.

Wewnętrzna i zewnętrzna spójność przepisów o umowie agencyjnej

Współautorstwo: Rott-Pietrzyk, Ewa

W poszukiwaniu dobrego prawa : księga jubileuszowa Profesora Mirosława Steca.T. 2,Perspektywa prywatnoprawna / redakcja naukowa Katarzyna Małysa-Sulińska, Marcin Spyra, Andrzej Szumański. Warszawa : Kraków : Wolters Kluwer ; Uniwersytet Jagielloński, 2022, s. 77-93.

Ochrona pośredników handlowych jako słabszej strony umowy (o wspólnych założeniach i mechanizmach ochrony agenta i konsumenta)

Współautorstwo: Rott-Pietrzyk, Ewa

Wyzwania dla prawa konsumenckiego w wymiarze globalnym, regionalnym i lokalnym / redakcja Monika Namysłowska, Krzysztof Podgórski, Elżbieta Sługocka-Krupa ; autorzy Ewa Cichowicz [i 29 pozostałych]. Warszawa : Wydawnictwo C. H. Beck, 2022, s. 277-290.

Komentarze do kodeksu cywilnego : ewolucja : tożsamość : perspektywy

Kwartalnik Prawa Prywatnego 2022, t. XXXI, nr 4, s. 585-627.

The article provides an in-depth portray of a commentary as a genre of legal scholarship in the Polish private law. Its main focus are the Polish-language commentaries to civil codes, including the 1932 Code of Obligations. This key part of the analysis is put against a broader backdrop of commentaries in Polish private law, with particular regard to commentaries in the family law. The text attempts to identify the form and role that commentaries have had for the identity of the Polish private law in its development since the beginning of the 20th century through various stages of its evolution (in the inter-war period, in the changing realities of the communist state in Poland and after the democratic transformation of the late 1980s and 1990s). Looking at the commentaries from these vantage points, the article identifies the long-lasting patterns and inspirations in creating commentaries in the Polish private law scholarship, and positions them against the comparative context of German commentaries (which undoubtedly have been the main stimuli for development of the Polish tradition of commentaries). The text also grapples with a number of more profound questions about the role of commentaries as a bridge between the scholarship and legal practice. In this regard it provides insights not only into the historical role of commentaries, but also into their future in the world where – due to unprecedented availability of digital sources – the access to information about law and its interpretation is open wider than ever.

Algorithmic Price Discrimination and Consumer Protection : A Digital Arms Race?

Technology and Regulation 2022, s. 36-47.

Współautorstwo: Jabłonowska, Agnieszka; Lagioia, Francesca; Sartor, Givanni

This paper investigates the practice of algorithmic price discrimination with a view to determining its impact on markets and society and making a possible plea for regulation. Online market players are gradually gaining the capacity to adapt prices dynamically based on knowledge generated through vast amounts of data, so that, theoretically, every individual consumer can be charged the maximum price he or she is willing to pay. The article discusses the downsides of data-driven price discrimination. It considers the extent to which such downsides are mitigated by European Union law, and what role remains for national provisions and consumer-empowering technologies. We find that the existing EU provisions address price discrimination only marginally and that full harmonisation, a goal pursued through many acts regulating consumer markets, restricts the Member States’ margin for independent legislation. Accordingly, consumer protection against algorithmic pricing may rely, in practice, on consumer-empowering technologies and initiatives. We investigate the implications of this state of affairs, arguing that an unbalanced “digital arms race” between the use of algorithms as market devices on the one hand, and their use as consumer protection tools on the other, does not ensure consumer protection. Based on these findings, we advance a claim for regulation which pursues two main goals: first, to make the race more balanced by strengthening the digital tools available to consumer protection actors and, second, to limit the battlefield by clarifying and refining the applicable rules and defining clearer categories of impermissible behaviours.

Effective consumer protection between administrative and judicial enforcement

Współautorstwo: Patera, Chiara; Pistelli, Federico

Effective Consumer Protection and Fundamental Rights / Paola Iamiceli, Fabrizio Cafaggi and Mireia Artigot i Golobardes (eds.) – Rome: Scuola Superiore della Magistratura, 2022, s. 145-167.

This chapter provides an overview of the administrative mechanisms with which consumer protection is enforced, and the relationship between such mechanisms and the judicial protection of consumers and professionals. The objective is to show how EU law and general principles should be applied in order to ensure the effective application of EU law and thereby effectively safeguard consumers and undertakings.

Privacy vs. freedom of expression : the fundamental rights perspective

Współautorstwo: Clavel, Sandrine

Effective Data Protection and Fundamental Rights / Paola Iamiceli, Fabrizio Cafaggi, Chiara Angiolini (eds.) – Rome: Scuola Superiore della Magistratura, 2022, s. 122-137.

The issues discussed in this chapter are particularly important in an online context, especially with regard to social media platforms (such as Facebook and Twitter). They provide one of the most vibrant and intense fora for their member to voice social, political, cultural and other attitudes, providing a possibility to address audiences of unprecedented scope. At the same time, platforms of this kind are massive collectors of personal data and base their business model of aggregation, processing and trading vast pools of information about individual users. In this way the operation of platforms creates substantial concerns for both freedom of expression and data/privacy protection. Both domains are mutual flip sides and collide in numerous regards. Protection of speech liberty in many regards intervenes into the spheres relevant for privacy and data protection (such as including data into journalist materials and archiving information in a publicly-available databases). At the same time, data/privacy protection instruments may lead to removal of particular speech acts from the public sphere or to limit the array of the allowed means of expression.

Será que o Direito Português confere melhor proteção aos consumidores vulneráveis que o Direito da União Europeia no contexto de cláusulas abusivas em contratos de consumo? : Uma análise jurídica e económica

Católica Law Review 2022, t. 6, nr 2, s. 83-111.

Współautorstwo: Gambôa Machado, Leonor; Esposito, Fabrizio

Este artigo compara as abordagens da União Europeia e de Portugal no que concerne à regulamentação das cláusulas contratuais abusivas nos contratos de consumo, analisando a sua capacidade de proteger os consumidores vulneráveis. Baseando-se tanto em razões jurídicas como económicas, o artigo suporta quatro teses: (1) O sistema do direito da União Europeia exige, por vezes, avaliar a transparência de uma cláusula da perspetiva dos consumidores vulneráveis; (2) Este nível de proteção mais elevado deve ser aplicado quando o nível de proteção oferecido aos consumidores médios que operam no mercado não cria uma «proteção de grupo» que cubra de forma suficiente os consumidores vulneráveis; (3) Nas mesmas situações, o direito português oferece uma melhor proteção aos consumidores vulneráveis; (4) O nível de proteção concedido pelo direito português poderia ser ainda mais elevado através da introdução de um elemento comparativo no dever de esclarecimento nos termos do artigo 6.º, n.º 2, do Regime das Cláusulas Contratuais Gerais (Regime das CCG).

The exceptions to the protection of data, relating to activities outside of the scope of EU Law, in particular public security, state security, defence, and criminal matters

Współautorstwo: Clavel, Sandrine

Effective Data Protection and Fundamental Rights / Paola Iamiceli, Fabrizio Cafaggi, Chiara Angiolini (eds.) – Rome: Scuola Superiore della Magistratura, 2022, s. 84-99.

Article 23 of the GDPR gives Member States the option to enact rules that restrict application of the data protection measures, if this is justified by goals legitimised by social or public reasons. The possible limitations may pertain to instruments enacted in Articles 12–22 (in connection with Article 5) and 34. Under Article 23, the domestic restrictions are compliant with EU law as long as they meet three cumulative criteria. (1) First of all, the restriction cannot infringe the essence of fundamental rights and freedoms that are protected under the GDPR rules restricted by a Member State. (2) Secondly, the imposed limitations should be necessary and proportionate to safeguard the intended aims. (3) Thirdly, the restrictions should serve one of the purposes listed in number by Article 23 (a)–(j) [on the content of this list, see below quotes from the applicable EU law].

Umowa agencyjna : problemy definicyjne i kwalifikacyjne na tle umów o pośrednictwo handlowe

Studia Prawa Prywatnego 2022, nr 1, s. 3-26.

Współautorstwo: Rott-Pietrzyk, Ewa

Artykuł podejmuje analizę ram normatywnych (podmiotowych i przedmiotowych) dla umowy agencyjnej w prawie polskim. W pierwszej kolejności autorzy odnoszą się do ogólnego zakresu stosowania przepisów o umowach pośrednictwa w rozwoju polskiego prawa umów od okresu międzywojennego do współczesności. Następnie przedmiotem analizy jest systemowe znaczenie art. 758 KC, rozumiane nie tylko jako przepis typizujący umowę agencyjną, lecz także jako swoiste spoiwo całego systemu umów o pośrednictwo. Problem definicji umowy agencyjnej i określenia zakresu stosowania jej przepisów jest przedstawiony jako znacznie szerszy i bardziej złożony, niż samo jedynie pytanie o wykładnię art. 758 KC oraz odpowiadających mu przepisów dyrektywy 86/653. Wymaga on bardziej dokładnego spojrzenia na strukturę polskich przepisów o umowach pośrednictwa, ich ewolucję oraz stojące za nimi cele, które są wypadkową decyzji polskiego ustawodawcy oraz celów i standardów wyznaczonych przez prawo UE. W dalszej kolejności artykuł obejmuje bardziej szczegółowe zagadnienia związane z zastosowaniem przepisów o umowie agencyjnej do innych umów pośrednictwa handlowego. Punktem wyjścia dla tych uwag jest prawo polskie, odczytywane przez pryzmat dyrektywy 86/653 i towarzyszącego jej orzecznictwa TSUE. Opracowanie zawiera także opis metodologii wykładni i stosowania przepisów o umowie agencyjnej, umożliwiającej zachowanie skuteczności (ang. effet utile) dyrektywy 86/653.

The text addresses the normative framework (in the party- and object-related sense) of commercial agency contracts in Polish law. First, the authors refer to the general scope of application of agency contract provisions in the historical development of Polish contract law from the interwar period until the present. Second, the analysis delves into the systemic role of Art. 758 of the Civil Code, understood not only as a provision that defines a commercial agency contract, but also as a specific “keystone” of the entire system of intermediation agreements. The question of the definition of commercial agency agreements and of determining the scope of application of their legal regulation is discussed in the text in a much broader and complex aspect than merely with regard to the interpretation of Art. 758 of the Civil Code and the corresponding provisions of Directive 86/653. This requires a more detailed scrutiny of the structure of the Polish regulation on commercial agency agreements, its evolution and the goals that underpin it (which are the result of the decisions of the Polish lawmaker as well as the goals and standards set by EU law). Third, the text examines more specific issues related to the application of the commercial agency regulation to other contracts on commercial intermediation. The starting point for these observations is Polish law read in light of Directive 86/653 and the relevant CJEU case law. The article discusses also interpretation and application of the provisions on commercial agency contracts that contribute to the effectiveness (effet utile) of Directive 86/653.

The Consumer Benchmark, Vulnerability, and the Contract Terms Transparency : A Plea for Reconsideration

European Review of Contract Law 2022, t. 18, nr 1, s. 1-31.

Współautorstwo: Esposito, Fabrizio

Transparency counts amid the most typical and inherent elements of the current consumer protection toolbox in EU law. For a long time, the exact premises of this requirement have been understood in a standardized way, taking the concept of an average consumer as the benchmark. The case of 93/13/EEC Directive (UCTD) is particularly striking in this regard. The necessary connection between the average consumer and transparency comes almost without saying in both the CJEU case law, and in the scholarship provisions on the UCTD. However, Articles 4(2) and 5 of the UCTD merely refer to a consumer. The focus on the average consumer therefore reduces the scope of application suggested by the plain meaning of these provisions. The article takes a critical stance towards the communis opinio that there is a necessary connection between the average consumer and transparency in the UCTD. Relying on both legal and economic reasons, the paper supports a twofold claim: (1) The system of EU law requires, sometimes, to assess the transparency of a term from the perspective of vulnerable consumers. (2) This more demanding standard shall be used when the average consumers operating on the market do not offer herd protection to the vulnerable consumers. The article shows that the communis opinio rests on a faulty assumption, namely that vulnerable consumers are protected when core terms are transparent for the average consumer. The article shows that this is not the case under common circumstances. Demanding core terms to be transparent for the vulnerable consumer in those circumstances contributes to reaching a high level of consumer protection.

La transparence compte parmi les éléments les plus caractéristiques et les plus essentiels de la palette d’outils dont dispose actuellement le droit communautaire en matière de protection des consommateurs. Depuis longtemps, les fondements exacts de cette exigence ont été compris de manière homogène, en prenant comme référence le concept de consommateur moyen. La directive 93/13/CEE (UCTD) concernant les clauses abusives dans les contrats conclus avec les consommateurs est particulièrement révélatrice à cet égard. Le lien établi entre le critère du consommateur moyen et les exigences de transparence est considéré comme presque évident, tant dans la jurisprudence de la CJCE que dans les publications scientifiques relatives à la directive UCTD. Cependant, les articles 4(2) et 5 de la UCTD ne font référence qu’à un consommateur. La limitation à un consommateur moyen réduit donc le champ d’application de ces dispositions, sans que l’objectif de la réglementation ne l’exige. L’article adopte une position critique à l’égard de la communis opinio selon laquelle il existerait nécessairement un lien entre le critère du consommateur moyen et les exigences de transparence dans la directive UCTD. S’appuyant sur des considérations à la fois juridiques et économiques, l’article soutient une double revendication : (1) L’économie du droit de l’UE exige parfois que la transparence d’une clause soit évaluée du point de vue des consommateurs vulnérables. (2) Ce critère plus exigeant doit être appliqué lorsque l’approche par les consommateurs moyens opérant sur le marché n’offrent pas une protection suffisante aux consommateurs plus vulnérables. L’article démontre que la communis opinio est fondée sur une hypothèse erronée, à savoir que le consommateur vulnérable est également protégé si les clauses substantielles sont transparentes pour le consommateur moyen. Ce n’est pas le cas dans des circonstances normales. Ainsi, exiger que les clauses principales soient suffisamment explicites pour le consommateur vulnérable dans ces circonstances contribue à atteindre un niveau élevé de protection des consommateurs.

Transparenz ist eines der typischsten und inhärentesten Elemente des aktuellen Verbraucherschutzinstrumentariums im EU-Recht. Die genauen Anforderungen dieses Grundsatzes wurden lange Zeit in einer standardisierten Weise verstanden, welche auf das Konzept des Durchschnittsverbrauchers als Maßstab abstellte. Besonders aussagekräftig in dieser Hinsicht ist die Richtlinie 93/13/EWG (UCTD). Der notwendige Zusammenhang zwischen dem Maßstab des Durchschnittsverbrauchers und den Anforderungen der Transparenz wird sowohl in der Rechtsprechung des EuGH als auch in den wissenschaftlichen Veröffentlichungen zur UCTD als nahezu selbstverständlich vorausgesetzt. Jedoch wird in den Artikeln 4(2) und 5 UCTD lediglich auf einen Verbraucher Bezug genommen. Die Beschränkung auf einen Durchschnittsverbraucher reduziert daher den Anwendungsbereich dieser Bestimmungen, ohne dass der Regelungszweck dies verlangt. Der Artikel nimmt eine kritische Haltung gegenüber der communis opinio ein, wonach notwendigerweise ein Zusammenhang zwischen dem Maßstab des Durchschnittsverbrauchers und den Anforderungen der Transparenz im UCTD besteht. Der Beitrag, gestützt auf rechtliche und wirtschaftliche Gründe, vertritt zwei zusammenhängende Forderungen: (1) Die Systematik des EU-Rechts erfordert mitunter, die Transparenz einer Klausel aus der Perspektive besonders schutzbedürftiger Verbraucher zu beurteilen. (2) Dieser anspruchsvollere Maßstab ist anzuwenden, wenn die auf dem Markt agierenden Durchschnittsverbraucher den schutzbedürftigeren Verbrauchern keinen Herdenschutz bieten. Der Artikel demonstriert, dass die communis opinio auf einer fehlerhaften Annahme beruht, nämlich dass auch der vulnerable Verbraucher geschützt ist, wenn die zentralen Klauseln für den Durchschnittsverbraucher transparent sind. Dies ist unter normalen Umständen nicht der Fall. Somit trägt die Forderung nach Transparenz einer AGB auch für den besonders schutzbedürftigen Verbraucher unter diesen Umständen zum Erreichen eines hohen Verbraucherschutzniveaus bei.