Zmierzch czy dostosowanie umowy cywilnoprawnej do warunków ery cyfrowej

Prawo i Więź 2025, nr 2 (55), s. 235-262.

Contracts have been used for about two and a half thousand years. The structure, functions and objectives of contracts change with the evolution of society and their economy. Currently, in an increasingly digital environment, the contract is also becoming more digital (algorithmized). One of the manifestations of the ongoing changes in contracts is the emergence and intensive development of adhesion contracts, concluded using new technological solutions (smart contracts, contracts created by algorithms) and using the law of other countries. Currently, Contracts no longer have their important self-regulatory and protective function. They do not provide private entities with the independent possibility of regulating their own life matters. They do not fully protect modern consumers against the arbitrary use of the economic power of the stronger party to the contract - entrepreneurs. Furthermore, algorithmized transactions based on smart contracts may in the future lead to the replacement of the classical-positivist model of the contract with a digital model.

W kierunku pieniądza cyfrowego jako powszechnego środka płatności

Przegląd Ustawodawstwa Gospodarczego 2024, nr 1, s. 31-37.

Pieniądz istnieje w cywilizacji od tysięcy lat, przechodzi przez różne etapy. Z czasem obok obrotu gotówkowego pojawiają się bezgotówkowe transakcje płatnicze. W dynamicznie zmieniającym się otoczeniu, które staje się coraz bardziej cyfrowe, przeobrażeniom ulega także sfera finansów. Jednym z przejawów tego zjawiska jest postępująca ewolucja form płatności bezgotówkowych, a także pojawienie się i intensywny rozwój kryptowalut opartych na technologii łańcucha bloków (blockchain). W ostatnich latach banki centralne podejmują prace nad koncepcją emisji nowej formy pieniądza – pieniądza cyfrowego banku centralnego (Central Bank Digital Currency, CBDC). Cyfrowe waluty banku centralnego (CBDC) to nowa, przyszłościowa forma pieniądza, która może znacznie zwiększyć efektywność systemów płatniczych i rozliczeniowych na krajowych i międzynarodowych rynkach finansowych. Chociaż CBDC mogą przynieść wiele korzyści, wiążą się z nimi również potencjalne, realne zagrożenia. Jednym z nich jest niebezpieczeństwo całkowitej utraty prywatności w sferze finansowej osób dokonujących operacji za pomocą pieniądza cyfrowego.

Money has existed in civilization for thousands years. The development of money has passed through various stages in accordance with time, place and circumstances and was linked to the growth in world trade and commerce. Next to cash came up non-cash payment transactions. In a dynamically changing environment, which is becoming increasingly digital, also financial area is undergoing transformations. One of its manifestations is progressive evolution of forms of noncash payments and emergence and intensive development of cryptocurrencies, based on blockchain technology. In recent years, an observed phenomenon is the work undertaken by central banks on the concept of issuing a new form of money – Central Bank Digital Currency. Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDC) are a new, future form of money that can greatly increase the efficiency of payment and settlement systems in domestic and international financial markets. While CBDCs have to bring many benefits, there are also potential and real risks associated with them. One of them is the danger of complete loss of financial privacy for people making transactions using digital money.

W kierunku ochrony prywatności w erze społeczeństwa informacyjnego

Palestra 2024, nr 8, s. 17-35.

In the information society of the digital age, privacy is exposed to previously unknown threats, obliging the legislator to provide privacy with effective legal protection. The understanding of privacy changes as the society evolves, and its protection should be adequate to the contemporary understanding of the sphere of privacy and the new emerging threats. The aim of the article is to show threats to interests in the spere of privacy goods resulting from the functionality of new technological devices (e.g. smartwatches) and to present the concept of privacy protection through a universal privacy right as a legal right with as broad a scope as possible.

New Legal Status of State Attorney Office

Studia Prawnicze 2018, nr 3, s. 131-153.

The purpose of the considerations hereinunder is an attempt to define a new, legal status of State Attorney Office (State Representation Office) of the Republic of Poland (RP), constituting – in theory – the completion of the construct of State Treasury as an administrator of public property, combining modernity and tradition in the area of counseling and state representation in court (for the purpose of litigation). Against the background of the changes having been introduced, involving, in particular, extension of competences of State Attorney Office of RP, there appears a question if the model of state representation constructed in a centralized way – defined in trading as ‘model of traditional modernity’ will provide effective representation and protection of state property.

Standaryzacja umów jako przejaw publicyzacji prawa prywatnego

Studia Prawnicze 2018, nr 5 (spec.), s. 37-51.

Teoretycznoprawne aspekty przedstawicielstwa organizacyjnego jako pragmatycznego sposobu reprezentacji osoby prawnej

Studia Prawnicze 2017, nr 3, s. 149-170.

The subject of legal entities’ representation in private law trading is of utmost importance because it affects the correctness of legal acts performed by these entities. The author, having analyzed the origins of legal entity’s representation and the form of legal entity’s representation on the grounds of European models (Germany) shows that in European countries of German legal traditions the model of organizational representation (organschaftlicher Vertretung) is being applied more and more commonly. On the grounds of Polish law the legal concept and model of the body of legal entities have based on the so called theory of bodies (organs) until recently. At present, under the influence of European solutions (Germany, Austria, Switzerland) there is a tendency to treat the bodies of legal entities as organizational representatives (of statute nature), i.e. the third – beside legal representation and based on contract - type of representation. It seems, however, that organizational representation constitutes a pragmatic alternative for the hitherto, formal concept of the theory of bodies (organs), which may substantially affect the flexibility of trading.

W kierunku tradycyjnego modelu Prokuratorii Generalnej RP jako instytucjonalnego zastępcy prawnego (procesowego) państwa (Skarbu Państwa) w obrocie prywatno-prawnym

Studia Prawnicze 2017, nr 1, s. 23-56.

Współautorstwo: Bierć, Andrzej

Zagadnienie zastępstwa prawnego (procesowego) państwa (skarbu państwa) w obrocie prywatno-prawnym ma szczególne znaczenie ze względu na konieczność efektywnej ochrony interesów majątkowych państwa (majątku publicznego). Autorzy, analizując sposoby prawnego zastępstwa państwa (skarbu państwa) na gruncie porządków europejskich wskazują, że zarówno instytucja skarbu państwa (fiskusa), jak i Prokuratorii Generalnej, to jest przedstawiciela ustawowego państwa (Skarbu Państwa) znajdują się na styku dwóch metod regulacyjnych: metody publiczno-prawnej (władczej) i metody prywatno-prawnej (niewładczej) i są definiowane z różnym natężeniem obu wskazanych metod. Na gruncie prawa krajowego teoretyczno-prawne poszukiwania punktu równowagi regulacyjnej tych instytucji koncentrowały się do niedawna na metodzie niewładczej (prywatno-prawnej). Obecnie zauważa się dążenie do nadania krajowym konstrukcjom prawnym, symbolizującym państwo w obrocie prywatno-prawnym, odpowiedniej spójności (integralności) w ramach całego systemu prawnego, a nie tylko jednej gałęzi prawa. Dominuje spojrzenie o charakterze publiczno-prawnym, traktujące państwo jako osobę prawa publicznego, stanowiącą pod względem funkcjonalnym integralną całość (imperium i dominium). Dopełnieniem konstrukcji zdecentralizowanego Skarbu Państwa jest de lege lata Prokuratoria Generalna Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej, będąca instytucjonalnym (w postaci urzędu państwowego) zastępcą prawnym (procesowym) Skarbu Państwa (fiskusa), nawiązująca swym kształtem organizacyjno-prawnym do tradycyjnego modelu tej instytucji, funkcjonującego dawniej w polskim systemie, a także mającego swój odpowiednik w systemie organów Austrii.

The subject of legal representation (for the purpose of litigation) of the State Treasury in private law trading is of utmost importance because of the need to efficiently protect the property interests of the State (public property). The authors, having analyzed the models of the State (State Treasury) representation in different European systems point out that the institution of Public Treasury as well as of the State Attorney Office, i.e. the legal representative of the State (State Treasury) are placed on the border of two regulation methods: public (imperious) method and cooperative (non-imperious) one, and are defined with varying intensity of both aforementioned methods. On the ground of national law, search for the regulatory balance between both of these institutions, until recently, have focused on non-imperious (cooperative) method. At present, aspirations are to be noticed to impose on national legal constructions, symbolizing the State in private law trading, appropriate cohesion (integrity) within the whole legal system, not only one branch of law. Approach of public law nature is dominant, regarding the State as public corporation, constituting, in terms of functionality, an integrity (imperium and dominium). The State Attorney Office is de lege lata the complement of decentralized State Treasury. It is an institutional (as state office) legal representative (for the purpose of litigation) of State Treasury, connecting its organizational legal form to traditional model of this institution, functioning formerly in Polishsystem, but having its equivalent in Austrian institutional system as well.

Teoretyczno-prawne poszukiwania sposobu "oznaczenia" państwa w obrocie prywatno-prawnym

Studia Prawnicze 2016, nr 2, s. 49-105.

Współautorstwo: Bierć, Andrzej

The subject of „designating” state in private transactions is important not only because of the issue of representation and liability for the obligations with public property but primarily on account of widely understood protection of the state’s property interests. The present essay is dedicated to theoretical exploration of the way to „designate” state in private trading on the ground of national theory and practice, at the same time taking into account European solutions, in particular of German legal traditions. Authors, analizing the ways to „designate” state in private transactions in European legal traditions, indicate the dominance of public nature approach, which treats the state as an entity of public law acting in private transctions as fiscus (treasury) and administering - depending on legal tradition - a different scope of rights. In national doctrine, however, fiscus (called treasury) is generally treated as a special private law entity not bothering that it is deprived of typical features of a private law entity but at the same time uses in practice – to some degree – imperious instruments shaping property relations of the state. Taking into consideration European perspective and its influence on national theory and practice, the authors indicate a need to undertake harmonization actions towards treating the treasury – the equivalent of fiscus in European states - as an entity of public law to ensure cohesion of the concept of public treasury on the ground of the whole legal system, not only private law.

Teoretycznoprawne aspekty przedstawicielstwa podmiotów prywatnych

Studia Prawnicze 2013, nr 4, s. 55-94.

The institution of representation is of enormous theoretical and practical signifi cance for contemporary legal sphere: it facilitates and accelerates legally binding activities, enabling participation of persons who, for various reasons, cannot validly undertake legal acts themselves. In the continental Europe, the construction of representation originates from the Roman law, which inspired the German law (Stellvertretung), which in turn considerably infl uenced contemporary legal systems in various countries, including the Polish law. Comparison of the construction of representation in the Polish law with the objectives, tasks and functions of representation in the German law will demonstrate characteristic features of the Polish legal regulation and infl uence of the German law thereupon. In addition, it will demonstrate that the German construction of representation is based on Zurechnung mechanism, while the Polish construction refers to legal fi ction.

Ewolucja regulacji prawnej Prokuratorii Generalnej w Polsce na tle rozwiązań austriackich

Studia Prawnicze 2012, nr 4, s. 29-84.

The structure of institutions, representing and defending state property in the course of civil law is important theoretical and practical, because it substantially determines the role of property in society and its impact on the functioning of the state in the economic sphere. The purpose of this article is to present the legal structure of State Treasury Solicitors’ Office, in Poland against the solutions adopted in Austrian law, which first introduced the institution of Financial Prosecutor, to protect the financial interests of the state. By comparing the structure of the State Treasury Solicitors’ Office with the objectives, tasks and functions of the Prosecutor Financial in Austria will be highlighted key features of the current institution in Poland. In comparison with the Austrian and Polish pre-war construction of the State Treasury Solicitors’ Office, the present institution is its narrow form. It only protects the rights and interests of the narrow sense (meaning) of the State Treasury, because due to subjective and objective limitations (e.g. it does not include inventoried state property or features that should meet to represent the interests of the state / advice, opinions, etc. /) defends the small part of rights and interests of the state.