Ściganie zbrodni międzynarodowych : uwagi dotyczące konieczności wprowadzenia zmian w polskim prawie karnym

Studia Prawnicze 2024, nr 2, s. 7-34.

Współautorstwo: Grzebyk, Patrycja; Kuczyńska, Hanna

W artykule zaprezentowano wyniki badań mających za przedmiot odpowiedź na pytanie, czy polskie prawo karne jest ukształtowane w sposób umożliwiający prowadzenie skutecznych, czyli pozwalających na oskarżenie konkretnych osób i wydanie wobec nich wyroków, postępowań karnych w sprawie zbrodni międzynarodowych, do których ścigania jest zobowiązana Polska. Wnioski z badań wskazują, że tak nie jest. Regulacje dotyczące definicji zbrodni międzynarodowych i zasad wykonywania jurysdykcji wobec nich są niewystarczające. W pierwszej części artykułu wyjaśniono, że ściganie zbrodni międzynarodowych stanowi zobowiązanie międzynarodowoprawne Rzeczypospolitej i brak podejmowania działań na rzecz wykonania tego obowiązku wiąże się z odpowiedzialnością w prawie międzynarodowym. W drugiej skupiono się na zasygnalizowaniu braku penalizacji danych zbrodni międzynarodowych w polskim k.k. albo rozbieżności pomiędzy definicjami zbrodni międzynarodowych w prawie międzynarodowym a tymi przyjętymi w polskim k.k. W trzeciej części przeanalizowano kwestie dopuszczalności wykonywania jurysdykcji przez sądy polskie nad zbrodniami międzynarodowymi popełnionymi poza terytorium państwa polskiego. Artykuł wieńczą konkluzje, w których podkreślono, że brak realizacji przez Polskę zobowiązań międzynarodowych prowadzi nie tylko do „strukturalnej bezkarności”, lecz także do niezrealizowania celów stojących przed wymiarem sprawiedliwości w sprawach karnych.

The article presents the results of research aimed at examining whether Polish criminal law is shaped in a way that allows for conducting effective, i.e. allowing for the indictment of specific persons and the issuance of sentences against them, criminal proceedings in the case of international crimes, which Poland is obliged to prosecute. The conclusions from the research indicate that this is not the case. The regulations concerning the definition of international crimes and the principles of exercising jurisdiction over them are insufficient. Not only is the prosecution of international crimes an international law obligation of the Republic of Poland, as explained in the first part of the article, but the lack of action to fulfil this obligation also carries international legal responsibility. Not only does the second part focus on signalling the lack of penalization of certain international crimes in the Polish Penal Code, but it also highlights discrepancies between the definitions of international crimes in international law and those adopted in the Polish Penal Code. Finally, the third part analyzes the issues of the admissibility of exercising jurisdiction by Polish courts over international crimes committed outside the territory of the Polish state. The article ends with conclusions that emphasize that Poland’s failure to implement its international obligations leads not only to „structural impunity” but also to the failure to achieve the goals of the criminal justice system.

Polish Practice on Promulgation of International Agreements between Poland and the USSR : 1944–1960

Polish Yearbook of International Law 2023, t. XLIII, s. 395–424.

Współautorstwo: Wierczyński, Grzegorz

This article raises the issue of the proper publication of international treaties and their presence in the Polish legal system. The authors analyze this issue based on research conducted on Polish-Russian treaties from 1944–1960. Their research has shown that, during this period, only 11% of treaties were properly published. The research – conducted on a very limited subject: only bilateral agreements between Poland and the USSR – leads to the pessimistic conclusion that in Poland it is customary practice to refrain from publishing an international agreement in the Journal of Laws and that citizens do not have at their disposal a single official or unofficial source to reconstruct Poland’s current obligations, which may indeed directly concern them. Also this finding raises important questions about the accessibility and enforceability of international treaties in the Polish legal system. At the international level, the consequences of failing to publish an act and to ensure official promulgation can be much more serious. In the absence of information about published agreements, it is not possible to sufficiently and completely determine the obligations between states nor to reconstruct the relations binding them. It is also impossible to clearly determine which international agreements are still in force between countries, which are invalid and which have expired.

„Specjalna operacja wojskowa” Rosji w Ukrainie : indywidualna odpowiedzialność za zbrodnię ludobójstwa i zbrodnie przeciwko ludzkości

Państwo i Prawo 2022, nr 9, s. 77-95.

Artykuł koncentruje się na kwestii objęcia zbrodni popełnianych w Ukrainie po inwazji Rosji 24.02.2022 jurysdykcją Międzynarodowego Trybunału Karnego i dopuszczalności wykonania jurysdykcji, której rezultatem miałoby być osądzenie rosyjskich zbrodniarzy przed międzynarodowym sądem. Artykuł analizuje problemy związane z kwalifikowaniem zbrodni przeciwko ludzkości i ludobójstwa, przy którym niezbędne jest wykazanie zamiaru ludobójczego, nie zaś masowego charakteru popełnianej zbrodni. Wskazano w nim także na problemy związane z wyegzekwowaniem odpowiedzialności karnej rosyjskiego prezydenta i jego podwładnych za popełnione zbrodnie przed Międzynarodowym Trybunałem Karnym weryfikując jednocześnie tezę o możliwości postawienia przed międzynarodowym wymiarem sprawiedliwości urzędującej głowy państwa, pomimo istniejących barier prawnych dotyczących osądzania głów państw, jako sprawców zbrodni międzynarodowych.

The article focuses on the question of bringing the crimes committed in Ukraine since the Russia invaded it on 24 February 2022 under the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court and the permissibility of exercising jurisdiction that would result in the trial of Russian criminals in an international court. The article examines the problems of classifying crimes against humanity and crimes of genocide, where it is necessary to demonstrate genocidal intent rather than the mass nature of the committed crime. It also points out the problems of holding the Russian president and his soldiers criminally responsible for the crimes before the International Criminal Court, while verifying the thesis that a sitting head of state can be brought to international justice despite the existing legal barriers to trying heads of state as perpetrators of international crimes.

"Specjalna operacja wojskowa" Rosji w Ukrainie : indywidualna odpowiedzialność za zbrodnię ludobójstwa i zbrodnie przeciwko ludzkości

Państwo i Prawo 2022, t. 76, nr 9, s. 77-95.

The article focuses on the question of bringing the crimes committed in Ukraine since the Russia invaded it on 24 February 2022 under the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court and the admissibility of exercising jurisdiction that would result in the trial of Russian criminals before that Court. The article examines the problems of classifying crimes against humanity and crimes of genocide, where it is necessary to demonstrate genocidal intent rather than the mass nature of the committed crime. It also points out the problems of holding the Russian president and his soldiers criminally responsible for the crimes before the International Criminal Court, while verifying the thesis that a sitting head of state can be brought to international justice despite barriers existing in international law.

International Prosecutors Acting before National Courts? : The Rome Statute System and the Ultimate Approach to Positive Complementarity

Chinese Journal of International Law 2022, t. 21, nr 2, s. 259-285.

The paper discusses whether it is possible to install an international prosecutor before domestic courts to prosecute international crimes. As the “future of international law is domestic” the paper analyzes the question of possible development of the international criminal justice system, suggesting the ultimate approach to positive complementarity which includes international prosecutors acting before national courts. It begins with analyzing the concept of positive complementarity and its possible interpretations, arguing that there are no compelling policy reasons against reinterpreting the idea in order to allow an international prosecutor to act before national courts. Subsequently it briefly presents the first installments of such institutions and focuses on the challenges connected with providing such a scenario in a future.

Head of State Immunity In Triangular Relations : The Case Of Al-Bashir Before The ICC

Chech Yearbook of Public & Private International Law 2019, t. 10, s. 47-63.

Współautorstwo: Kuczyńska, Hanna

In its last decision on the cooperation of Jordan the Appeals Chamber of the International Criminal Court referred inter alia to the issue “whether Head of State immunity fi nds application in a situation where the Court requests a State Party of the Rome Statute to arrest and surrender the Head of State of another State (in this instance, Sudan), which, while not being state party to the Rome Statute, is the subject of a referral to the Court by the UN Security Council (further SC or UN SC) and, in terms of Resolution 1593, obliged to fully cooperate with the Court.” Specifi cally, the question was whether the president of Sudan, which is not a State Party of the ICC Statute, Omar Al-Bashir, was immune from the jurisdiction of Jordan, which is an ICC State Party, when it executed an arrest warrant issued by the ICC in a case referred to the Court by the resolution of the SC. The Appeals Chamber concluded that Jordan was obliged to execute the ICC arrest warrant as in result of the SC resolution the status of Sudan versus the ICC was equated with that of a state party to the Rome Statute. Thus, the obligation to cooperate with the ICC rested on both states – and on Jordan because of obligation of all state parties to cooperate with the ICC. In the contribution this decision is analysed particularly in the context of vertical and horizontal relationship between State Parties and the ICC and the obligation of third states in the context of the Security Council resolution. Th e ambiguous relation between the ICC and the SC, arising from this decision, will also be analysed.

The Polish-German Cultural Heritage Relationship in 1990-2019 : Main Controversies and Areas of Progress

Santander Art and Culture Law Review 2018, nr 2, s. 221-250.

This contribution refers comprehensively to the issues surrounding the legal and practical aspects of the Polish-German relationship in the area of cultural heritage between 1990-2019, taking into account the Second World War trauma which still shapes such mutual relations. The main research problems focused on the contexts of Poland’s and Germany’s policies towards the problems related to cultural heritage. Interestingly, mutual cooperation in many instances takes place regardless of the official political line of a given State and engages non-state institutional subjects on many levels. The point is that Polish-German relations in the area of cultural heritage proceed regardless of the Polish and German official political narratives and claims in the context of the cultural heritage lost and/or not returned during and after the Second World War. Paradoxically, the wider perspective shows that Polish-German relationships in the area of cultural heritage refer currently not only to lost goods but to broader cooperation in many aspects of cultural heritage, such as the preservation of cultural goods, regional cooperation, etc., which is conducted and developed by non-governmental organizations, societies, and foundations (including ordinary people). They seem to have a leading role in the reconciliation processes of the two States.

Act of 18 December 1998 on the Institute of National Remembrance : Commission for the Prosecution of Crimes against the Polish Nation as a Ground for Prosecution of Crimes against humanity, War Crimes and Crimes against Peace

Polish Yearbook of International Law 2017, t. 37, s. 275-286.

Thi­s arti­cle di­scusses defin­i­ti­on­s of cri­mes i­n­cluded i­n­to the Act of 18 December 1998 on­ the In­sti­tute of Nati­on­al Remembran­ce – Commi­ssi­on­ for the Prosecuti­on­ of Cri­mes agai­n­st the Poli­sh Nati­on­, an­d thei­r usefuln­ess i­n­ prosecuti­n­g i­n­di­vi­duals who commi­tted i­n­tern­ati­on­al cri­mes. It i­s argued that the provi­si­on­s of the Act can­n­ot con­sti­tute a groun­d for cri­mi­n­al respon­si­bi­li­ty of i­n­di­vi­duals, as they vi­olate the pri­n­ci­ple of nullum crimen sine lege certa.

Responsibility of State and Responsibility of Individual : Old Problems and New Challenges for International Law

Czech Yearbook of International Law 2017, t. 8, s. 23-36.

The present article takes into account the question of international responsibility and the problem of its attribution in the light of state and individual responsibility. The contribution develops the question of elements of those two regimes with a special attention to the relations between them, specifically when it comes to the international justice, targeted killings and the technology of drone warfare. The considerations will not, however, be limited only to states and individuals, but attention is paid also to some specific subjects such as terrorist groups and their status in international law as well as their responsibility for committed crimes.

Článek přináší úvahu o otázce mezinárodní odpovědnosti a problematice přičitatelnosti ve světle státní a individuální odpovědnosti. Příspěvek rozvíjí otázku prvků obou režimů odpovědnosti se zvláštním důrazem na vztahy mezi nimi, konkrétně pokud jde o mezinárodní spravedlnost, cílená zabíjení a technologii vedení války za použití dronů. Předmětné úvahy se však neomezují pouze na státy a jednotlivce; pozornost autorka věnuje rovněž některým specifi ckým subjektům, jako jsou teroristické skupiny a jejich postavení v mezinárodním právu, jakož i jejich odpovědnost za spáchané zločiny.

Hierarchia zbrodni w prawie międzynarodowym

Państwo i Prawo 2016, nr 1, s. 58-72.

The author argues whether it is possible to build the hierarchy of the core crimes in international law in the light of international documents and specifically the Statute and practice of International Criminal Court. Arguments are focused on the meaning and application of gravity which is the element of the mechanism of admissibility and at the same time the element of imposing a sentence by the ICC. Gravity seems to replace the hierarchy of crimes as a factor allowing to build conclusions relating to the committed crimes.

Zbrodnie przeciwko dziedzictwu kulturowemu przed Międzynarodowym Trybunałem Karnym : analiza krytyczna

Studia Prawnicze 2016, nr 1, s. 39-63.

Współautorstwo: Jakubowski, Andrzej

On 24 March 2016 the International Criminal Court (ICC) issued a decision confirming the charges of committing war crimes by Al Ahmad Al Mahdi (Abu Tourab). He is suspected of war crimes allegedly committed in 2012, in Timbuktu (Mali), through intentionally directing attacks against buildings dedicated to religion and/or historical monuments (Article8(2)(e)(iv) of the Rome Statute). In fact, this is the first case to be brought before the ICC concerning the destruction of cultural property. By referring to the circumstances of the case, this article analyses the complimentary function of international criminal tribunals in the prosecuting and convicting of individuals liable for grave cultural heritage crimes vis-à-vis the shortcomings of national criminal jurisdiction. First, it reconstructs the normative foundations of prohibiting and prosecuting cultural heritage crimes. Second, it endeavours to critically assess the practice of international criminal tribunals ad hoc in dealing with the destruction of cultural property. In particular, by referring to certain cases adjudged by the ICTY, it aims to demonstrate to what extent the international protective status of a cultural heritage site may constitute a critical factor in imposing criminal responsibility on individual perpetrators (the cases of Blaškić, Čerkez and Strugar). It also analyses whether intentional attacks against cultural heritage sites, whose protection lies in the general interest of all humanity, may have an impact on the gravity of the crime and the penalty imposed for its commission. Third, the paper deals with the limited provisions of the Rome Statute and offers some general conclusions in respect to the evolving system of individual criminal responsibility for cultural heritage crimes.

Współczesny wymiar zbrodni ludobójstwa

Studia Socjologiczno-Polityczne. Seria Nowa 2015, t. 4, nr 2, s. 31-46.

Genocide was defined in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and on normative grounds it was not subject to any amendments. Nevertheless, it was interpreted by different courts and tribunals which exercise the jurisdiction in the context of this crime. The courts defined the notions of the “protected group”, “to destroy the group”, “to destroy in whole”, and so on. After almost seventy years of its adoption, the Convention is quite a lively document with timeless value, and only constant recalling of the cultural genocide by the domestic courts reiterates that this crime left outside the Convention still needs its place in binding international law.

Dekada działalności Międzynarodowego Trybunału Karnego : sukcesy i porażki międzynarodowego wymiaru sprawiedliwości

Studia Prawnicze 2013, nr 2, s. 123-142.

The paper is focused on the activities of the International Criminal Court during the fi rst decade that passed since its establishment. The author discusses questions of the fi rst referrals, admissibility challenges, defi nition of crimes against humanity and principle of complementarity, suggesting necessary amendments to the works of the ICC.

Elementy zbrodni ludobójstwa w orzecznictwie międzynarodowych trybunałów karnych ad hoc

Sprawy Międzynarodowe 2011, nr 2, s. 123-138.

Spór przed Międzynarodowym Trybunałem Sprawiedliwości o zastosowanie konwencji w sprawie likwidacji wszelkich form dyskryminacji rasowej pomiędzy Gruzją a Federacją Rosyjską : kwestie prawnomiędzynarodowe

Międzynarodowe Prawo Humanitarne 2011, t. 2, s. 127-143.

Sovereign equality of states and their territorial integrity undoubtedly constitute the foundation of the contemporary international relations. We can infer from those rules the prohibition of intervention in the internal affairs of a state. For decades since the end of World War II the prohibition of the use of armed forces had only two exceptions, which was self-defense (in accordance with article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations) and the action with the consent of international organizations (in accordance with Chapter VII of the Charter). The need for protection of human rights has led to the discussions concerning the legitimacy of the use of armed forces to prezent human rights violations. In the light of these observations, the author examines the policy of the Russian Federation against Georgia and its autonomous territories, in particular the dispute before the International Court of Justice.

Suwerenna równość państw i ich terytorialna integralność stanowią niewątpliwie fundament współczesnych stosunków międzynarodowych. Stąd wywodzić można zakaz interwencji w sprawy wewnętrzne danego państwa. Przez dekady od końca II wojny światowej od zakazu użycia siły zbrojnej były tylko dwa wyjątki: samoobrona (w myśl artykułu 51 Karty Narodów Zjednoczonych) i działanie za zgodą organizacji międzynarodowej (zgodnie z rozdziałem VII Karty). Po zakończeniu zimnej wojny zaczęto dyskutować o rozszerzeniu zakresu sytuacji, które uzasadniałyby użycie siły zbrojnej, wskazując na interwencję humanitarną czy prewencyjną samoobronę. W szczególności potrzeba ochrony praw człowieka doprowadziła do dyskusji o legitymizacji użycia siły zbrojnej w celu zapobiegania i powstrzymywania naruszeń praw człowieka czy katastrof humanitarnych. Należy jednak z całą stanowczością stwierdzić, że prawo do użycia siły zbrojnej w stosunkach międzynarodowych dopuszczalne jest wyjątkowo. W kontekście tych uwag ocenić należy politykę Federacji Rosyjskiej wobec Gruzji i jej terytoriów autonomicznych, w szczególności zaś spór tych państw przed Międzynarodowym Trybunałem Sprawiedliwości

Przegląd orzecznictwa Europejskiego Trybunału Praw Człowieka w sprawach polskich za rok 2009

Gdańskie Studia Prawnicze Przegląd Orzecznictwa 2011, nr 4, s. 11-38.

Some Remarks on Poland's Potential Responsibility for the Treatment of Detainees in a CIA Prison in Poland

Polish Yearbook of International Law 2011, t. 31, s. 259-283.

Secret detentions, renditions, torture and other forms of cruel treatment can-not be considered as humane treatment in any situation. A State that performs such acts can obviously be held responsible, as can any other States which aid, assist, facilitate, and off er their airports or prisons. All these violations of international law were con-nected with the American and European counter-terrorism actions in the context of their “global war on terror”. Detaining prisoners without the consent of a competent court, without informing their families, interrogating them, torturing them and other examples of using “enhanced techniques” amount to a violation of international law and can lead to either the legal responsibility of the state, the criminal responsibility of state offi cials, or both. This article analyzes the scope of Poland’s potential responsibil-ity for violations of both international and domestic law connected with the question of the detainment of American secret prisoners on Polish soil.

Przegląd orzecznictwa Europejskiego Trybunału Praw Człowieka w sprawach polskich za rok 2008

Gdańskie Studia Prawnicze. Przegląd Orzecznictwa 2010, nr 2, s. 15-50.

Ogłaszanie umów międzynarodowych jako warunek ich bezpośredniego stosowania : kilka uwag na marginesie polskiej praktyki

Studia Prawnicze 2009, nr 3, s. 5-23.

Współautorstwo: Wierczyński, Grzegorz

Article 9 of the Polish Constitution states: The Republic of Poland shall respect international law binding upon it. According to this provision all organs of public authoriĘ are obliged to ensure effectiveness of international agreements which are bincling on Poland. The condition for direct effectiveness of interna tiona] agreements in the national law (understood as a possibiiĘ of deril'ations rights and obligations for individuals from that agreements) is the official publi cation of the said conventions. This article analyses the pror.isions of Polish 1aw governing the official pub lication of international agreements and assesses the long established practices in this area As a result of this research several sensitive areas have been identi fied. First and foremost concerning the actual publication of conclucled interna tional agreements. Comparison of the number of international agreements con cluded in years 2000-2008 available in the database of Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs rvith the number of international agreements announced in the Official Journal shows that only 57% of those agreernents were properly published. Fur thermore problems have also been identified as: - failure to publish information on entry into force and the changes per taining to the actual number of contracting parties, - failure to publish information about the deposit of the ratiĄ.ing docu ments or documents terminating the agreement, - lack of or incomplete information about reservations or objections to the agreements submitted by the contracting par[ies, which makes it diffi cult or even impossible to establish the exact scope of the agreement, - delays in official publishing of international agreements (very often doc urnents are published manyyears after the ratification or even after coming into force). Each of the above mentioned deficiencies concerning the proper official publication of international agreements is not acceptable in the democratic state governed by the rule of 1aw, respecting the binding rules of international 1aw The authors propose an amendment of the existing legal rules and practice. In con dusion certain proposal s de lege ferenda andproposals in relation to existing prac tices aiming towards eliminating irreguiarities in the official publication of international agreements in Poland are formulated.

Odpowiedzialność państwa za eksterytorialne naruszenia prawa międzynarodowego w świetle decyzji i orzeczeń ETPCzł

Europejski Przegląd Sądowy 2008, nr 6, s. 30-34.

Judge Manfred Lachs and His Role in International Adjudication

Baltic Yearbook of International Law Online 2007, t. 7, nr 1, s. 113-119.

Konflikt cypryjski w kontekście wejścia Turcji do Unii Europejskiej

Przegląd Zachodni 2006, nr 4, s. 220-234.

The evolution of the notion genocide in the context of the jurisdiction of the national courts

Polish Yearbook of International Law 2006/2008, t. 28, s. 83-93.

This article analyzes the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the proceedings of national courts. National courts are not willing to deliver interpretations of the elements of the crime of genocide, hence in this respect their judgments are rather superficial when compared to international rulings concerning genocide. With a few exceptions, national courts base their rulings on the practice of international courts. One of those few exceptions is the question of “destruction of the group” in the case of Jorgić, and the broadened definition of “national group” elaborated by the Spanish courts. Moreover, there have been only a few prosecutions for genocide in national courts, and this practice has had little to contribute to the definition of the crime of genocide. The courts neither interpret the notion in new ways, nor even add new interpretations to the practice of tribunals ad hoc. Ironically international tribunals have developed the law of genocide, even though it is domestic courts which should be the courts of the first resort (and the first “source” of interpretation).

Przegląd orzecznictwa Międzynarodowego Trybunału Karnego do spraw zbrodni w byłej Jugosławii

Studia Prawnicze 2003, nr 2, s. 51-69.

W niniejszej pracy została przedstawiona działalność Międzynarodowego Trybunału Karnego do spraw zbrodni w byłej Jugosławii. Autorka artykułu omówiła legalność, prymat i kompetencje rzeczową Trybunału, obowiązującą zasadę ne bis in idem w postępowaniu przed Trybunałem, środki ochrony pokrzywdzonych i świadków, uprawnienia Trybunału, tajność posiedzeń i anonimowość, formę składania zeznań. Ponadto autorka przedstawiła rozstrzygnięcia merytoryczne Trybunału w sprawach Duško Tadicia, Blaškicia, Draźena Erdemovicia, oraz Kunaraca, Vukovicia i Kovača.

This paper presents the activities of the International Criminal Tribunal for crimes in the former Yugoslavia. The author of the article discussed the legality, primacy and substantive competence of the Court, the applicable principle of ne bis in idem in proceedings before the Tribunal, measures for the protection of victims and witnesses, the powers of the Tribunal, the secrecy of hearings and anonymity, the form of testimony. Furthermore, the author presented the Tribunal's substantive decisions in the cases of Duško Tadić, Blaškić, Draźen Erdemović, and Kunarac, Vuković and Kovač.

Wpływ Rady Bezpieczeństwa i Stanów Zjednoczonych na działalność Międzynarodowego Trybunału Karnego

Przegląd Zachodni 2003, nr 3, s. 184-192.

Individual Responsibility for Deliberate Destruction of Cultural Heritage : Contextualizing the ICC Judgment in the Al-Mahdi Case

Chinese Journal of International Law 2017, t. 16, nr 4, s. 695-721.

This article analyses how the International Criminal Court dealt, in the case of Al-Mahdi, with the crime of intentional attacks directed against protected cultural heritage sites. The case is discussed in the context of the previous experience and jurisprudence of other international criminal tribunals in prosecuting and punishing the perpetrators of cultural heritage crimes. In this respect, the article examines the complementary function of international criminal justice in relation to the shortcomings of national criminal jurisdictions. It also deals with a set of fundamental issues emerging at the junction of the international protection of cultural heritage and individual criminal responsibility, being the gravity of international crimes; cultural genocide as affecting the identity of a group; and the primary obligation of States to exercise criminal jurisdiction over individuals. The core aim of the article is thus to critically analyse the extent to which the ICC judgment in Al-Mahdi may be seen as a breakthrough towards a more efficient international mechanism for counteracting impunity in crimes against cultural heritage.